Factors That Influence Disease Transmission by Kathrine Ting The complex transmission seasonality of hand, foot, and mouth disease and its driving factors Jijun Zhao1* and Xiangyu Hu2 Abstract Background: The transmission rate seasonality is an important index for transmission dynamics in many childhood infections, and has been widely studied in industrialized countries. This is because there are no standards for the wall thickness and height of syringe nozzles. Low dead space syringes with permanently attached needles retain less fluid, blood, and HIV after use than standard high dead space syringes. Needles ranged in gauge from 25 to 21g. Needle gauge was influenced by the size of the vein, the viscosity of drug solution to be injected, and problems with blood clotting. factors to the spread of TB infection and disease in populations. Drug and alcohol dependence 2007, 91 Suppl 1:S18-29. Several participants reported that they preferred needles with translucent plastic hubs over needles with opaque plastic hubs. This is important for disease transmission, as Ae. Hypothesized factors included water storage practices, building materials, and economic status. Susceptible organisms i.e. These needles can eliminate most of the dead space in the hub of the needle and in the nozzle of the syringe. A major reason for this is that the behaviors and traits of viruses are highly variable some spread more easily through . The results of this coding comparison query were exported from NVivo as an excel spreadsheet (using the Export List command). aegypti indoors to reduce mortality [74]; indoor resting behavior is characteristic of Ae. STDs are behavior-linked diseases that result from unprotected sex. disease transmission and disease cycle SlideShare uses cookies to improve functionality and performance, and to provide you with relevant advertising. Controlling these mosquitoes has been an important way to reduce the risk of disease transmission. aegypti were detected) and household variables were built in R with the MASS package [50], using the default options of the polr function to perform proportional odds logistic regressions [49,51]. Drawing more blood into a syringe increases the possibility that the blood may clot and block the needle. Center for Research SUNY Upstate, Utmach, Tefilo Dvila Hospital, Machala, Ecuador, Roles With an opaque needle hub, the only way to determine if blood is still in the needle hub is to remove the needle and look into the hub. aegypti presence, and temporal and spatial trends across an arid border city in Ecuador. There was a general perception that the heroin currently being sold in both cities was not as pure as the heroin that was available in previous years. Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are sensitive to abiotic environmental factors such as climate, including temperature, rainfall and relative humidity, all of which can be highly variable at fine spatial scales and influenced by features of the built environment [9]. Coders iteratively communicated and discussed all revisions to the code book, including addition of new codes, grouping and regrouping of codes and categories in the coding tree until an agreement was reached. The Global Burden of Disease framework, originally published in 1990, has been widely adopted as the preferred method for health accounting and has become the standard to guide the setting of health research priorities. of the protozoa In May 2014, we conducted 12 focus groups (6 in Kulob and 6 in Khorog) with a total of 100 participants (47 in Khorog and 53 in Kulob). Biting, development, fecundity, and mortality have been shown to be positively correlated with mean temperatures within this range [72]. Gaughwin MD, Gowans E, Ali R, Burrell C: Bloody needles: the volumes of blood transferred in simulations of needlestick injuries and shared use of syringes for injection of intravenous drugs. aegypti presence. All of the participants in the focus groups reported obtaining some or all of their needles and syringes from NSP. Abdala N, Stephens PC, Griffith BP, Heimer R: Survival of HIV-1 in syringes. Participants were recruited by needle and syringe program (NSP) staff members either at the NSP offices or while doing outreach. This Univariate analyses with proportional odds logistic regression were used to explore household social-ecological variables and female Ae. The first part of the text covers ID epidemiology background and methodology, whereas the second focuses on specific diseases as examples of different transmission modalities. While the airborne transmission of disease depends on several physical variables endemic to the infectious particle, environmental factors substantially influence the efficacy of airborne disease transmission. Here, we were limited by a lack of available local humidity data;. http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo-mac.aspx, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-015-0069-7. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009931.g003. All participants in both cities were male and reported injecting heroin. The Kappa coefficient and percentage agreement were calculated individually for each combination of nodes and sources and for all nodes together. To date, there have been no studies examining the impacts of climate and social-ecological system (SES) on Ae. Prior to implementing the WHO recommendation to offer their clients low dead space needles and syringes, NSP need to ascertain the needs of their clients and offer low dead space equipment that will be acceptable to their clients. The environmental factors most often cited as modifying the airborne transmission of disease are temperature and relative humidity . In our study, Ae. Gathering thirteen essays by forty leading experts who convened at the Cary Conference at the Institute of Ecosystem Studies in 2005, this book develops an integrated framework for understanding where these diseases come from, what aegypti presence or dengue fever were also observed in Machala and Guayaquil, two other coastal cities in Ecuador, possibly indicating that access to municipal services like trash collection may be a proxy indicator of built environments in Ecuador that are easily exploited by Ae. Much remains unknown about how the virus that causes COVID-19 spreads through the environment. Copyright 2021 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. For assessments of climate impacts and temporal signals, 41 houses (65%) with 205 mosquito sampling events met the criteria for inclusion. Environmental factors are well known to influence infectious disease epidemiology. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15(11): Statistically significant climate indicators were used to construct a beta regression model (link = logit, link.phi = identity) in R with the package betareg [41,42] to capture the relationship between climate and the proportion of positive households in sampling clusters [41,43]. However, low dead space detachable needles may provide an acceptable alternative in these areas, which could greatly expand the impact of low dead space needles and syringes on reducing HIV and HCV among PWID globally. Until relatively recently, syringes with detachable needles have all been high dead space. These few studies indicate that PWID use needles that vary in length and gauge (i.e., outside diameter). This points to the complexities of interactions between temperature (which can exceed optima for survival), precipitation, and sufficient humidity in an arid environment. We aimed to discern factors associated with measles virus transmission in the United States after elimination. The average agreement rate by source size (characters) and weighted Kappa coefficient for all nodes were calculated using Excel formulas resulting in 99.69 and 0.83%, respectively. Month proportions and 95% confidence intervals for 41 households used in this dataset. aegypti at the household level differed across months. Other factors, such as syringe barrel capacity may be situational and change depending on the volume of fluid required to prepare a specific drug (e.g., heroin, acetylated opium) or whether the drug solution is prepared for one person or to be divided among two or more people. Teams of field technicians visited households biweekly during JanuaryMay 2017 to collect adult mosquitoes from households using Prokopak backpack aspirators. With detachable needles, the needle can be removed, and the tip of the syringe nozzle can be placed directly on the filter. Writing review & editing, Affiliations Walsh N, Maher L. HIV and HCV among people who inject drugs in Central Asia. 2013;24(1):814. But there is shortage of [good quality] heroin now, thats why they shoot it [mixing with medicines]. (FGD#3, Kulob). Miles Matthew B, Huberman AM, Saldana J. Qualitative data analysis, A methods sourcebook edisi ketiga. The absence of women in the focus groups also limits the generalizability. How dietary factors influence disease risk . Climate change throughout the 21st century is also set to increase the area suitable for Ae. Intraclass correlation (ICC) values for household data were near zero (ICC = 0.01), indicating that the clustered study design did not greatly impact variance in the data, thus precluding the need for a mixed-effects modeling structure [45,46]. aegypti presence as a function of the significant climate lags had a pseudo R2 of 0.77 (p = 0.023), and precipitation at a week lag ( = 1.91, p = 0.03) and mean temperature of the week ( = 0.69, p = 0.008) remained individually significant and positive in the model. Factors Affecting COVID-19 Transmission. 1999;20(1):7380. <10), household Ae. It appears that because most PWID in Tajikistan inject heroin almost exclusively, there is less variation in syringe barrel capacity than in cities and countries where PWID inject a variety of drugs [7]. Quantitative Disease Ecology and Conservation (QDEC) Lab, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America, Most HIV and HCV infections among PWID are attributed to direct needle and syringe sharing (i.e., multi-person use of a needle and or syringe) [3, 4] or indirect sharing (i.e., sharing drug preparation materials or the liquefied drug solution) [5, 6]. With an opaque hub they have to draw blood all of the way into the barrel of the syringe as described in this quote from a participant in Khorog. PubMed Writing review & editing, Affiliation aegypti in the study group, at a monthly scale, only households with sampling events in all months were included. Several participants reported that when some needles are reused multiple times, the connection between the needle and the needle hub fails, and the needle detaches and remains in their arm following the injection. that affect the normal growth and survival of affected plants. Figure1a illustrates the dead space in a standard needle and syringe. To protect the privacy of participants, data were de-identified prior to use in any of the analyses conducted in this study. Author summary Mosquito transmitted infectious diseases are a growing concern around the world. diseases are also caused by abiotic, environmental factors such as nutrient deficiencies, extremes in temperature and soil moisture, etc. aegypti to hatch and begin development [64]. 2009;20(4):3406. Each focus group lasted between 60 and 90min, was digitally recorded and transcribed directly into native language. Studies that are undertaken to understand local factors that contribute to the continued survival of the mosquito can be used to inform control practices. Copyright 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Software, The Kappa coefficient [21] is a statistical measure of the level of agreement between two coders that takes into account the amount of random (chance) agreement that could be expected to occur. In univariate models, we found that only factors related to infrastructure were significant predictors of Ae. Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America, Roles 1. The top six leading risk factors are all linked to potential development of long-term diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, and cancers. Due to low counts (e.g. The role of precipitation may be more identifiable when containers and buckets are visibly on household premises, but is diminished when alternative oviposition sites such as water storage tanks, cisterns, and other water infrastructure sites are available [54,69]. In: NIDA International Forum. Citation: Martin JL, Lippi CA, Stewart-Ibarra AM, Ayala EB, Mordecai EA, Sippy R, et al. We found that weekly Ae. This can be problematic if the needle moves slightly during the injection process, and more blood needs to be drawn into the syringe to confirm that the needle is still in a vein. Annual mean temperature ranges from 21.627.6C. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. Educ Res J. Once a certain code had been created in NVivo, it was then applied in relevant places in other interviews. IK and UI performed qualitative content and thematic analysis. These data included minimum, maximum, and mean temperature, and total daily precipitation. Chi-squared test for difference in proportions: 9.56, p = 0.0484). Methodology, , 25 Figure 5 illustrates a mapping of the distal environmental change, due to road proximity, to the proximal environmental factors associated with water sanitation and hygiene that directly influence disease transmission. Another potential benefit that was not mentioned is that removing a needle when drawing the drug solution into the syringe virtually eliminates the risk of dulling a needle by accidentally jamming it into the bottom of the mixing vessel (e.g., cooker, spoon). identifying the influence of mobility . After completion of the coding process, inter-rater reliability coefficient was calculated. Changes in Ae. All data cleaning and processing was conducted in R version 3.5.1 [35]. Needle length varied depending on the injection site/vein. In the early 1960s, Schulman and Kilbourne developed an . aegypti presence [4749]. given the arid conditions in Huaquillas, investigating the role that humidity plays in modulating mosquito presence and survival is a potential target for future studies. Zopiclone is from the same family of drugs as Lunesta (eszopiclone) and Ambien (zolpidem). If we are to protect ourselves against emerging diseases, the essential first step is effective global disease surveillance to give early warning of emerging infections . However, these focus groups were conducted in Russian and Tajik and translated into English for analyses. Each cluster consisted of the central household, and up to five additional households randomly enrolled into the study from within a 250m radius of the central household, a distance that approximates the flight range of Ae. This may make low dead space detachable needles more effective in reducing the probability of HIV and HCV transmission in Tajikistan than in countries such as Ukraine where larger (e.g., 5ml and 10ml) syringes are more common [7]. From January to May of 2017, adult mosquitoes were collected from a cohort of households (n = 63) in clusters (n = 10), across the city of Huaquillas, using aspirator backpacks. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Factors affecting transmission of contagious diseases There are differences in the transmission rate of infectious diseases. This makes them difficult to manipulate with one hand if a PWID is injecting more than 0.5ml of fluid, and most PWID in Tajikistan inject at least 1ml of fluid. The needle and the damage done: clinical and behavioural markers of severe femoral vein damage among groin injectors. Natural disasters and cholera outbreaks. Ebola, SARS, and concerns over pandemic flu. HIV and AIDS. E. coli outbreaks from contaminated produce and fast foods. Threats of bioterrorism. Contamination of compounded drugs. Yellow fever dominated during early 20th century, and at the beginning of the 21st century dengue fever emerged as the principal mosquito-borne disease, coinciding with a decline in malaria cases [16,17]. Yes For assessments of household characteristics and SES models, 32 houses (51%) with 160 mosquito sampling events met the criteria for inclusion (S1 Table). Uncertainties remain with respect to the relative importance of these factors and the roles that they play. Is the Subject Area "Aedes aegypti" applicable to this article? Department of Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, United States of America, Although this seems to be a relatively rare occurrence, it seems to make an impression on PWID when it happens as described by a participant from Khorog. Formal analysis, Google Scholar. Yes Yes Section 10: Chain of Infection. FIGURE 8 Main diseases contributing to the environmental burden of disease, for the total population 62 FIGURE 9 Main diseases contributing to the environmental burden of disease among children 0-14 years 62 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 Environmental risk factors and related diseases included in the CRA 27 These viruses display various transmission patterns among humans; however, they all share the ability to transmit from person to person, and their human transmissibility is influenced by the environment in which pathogen and host meet. The seasonal nature of Huaquillas climate may thus point to time periods when targeted vector control interventions would be optimally effective. The yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti) is the primary vector of dengue virus (DENV) and other medically important arboviruses such as chikungunya, yellow fever, and Zika [1,3]. Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America, This captures the immediate effect of temperature on Ae. In January, the proportion of positive households was 0.38; this increased to 0.59 in February before steadily declining. Given the clear role of water availability, our findings suggest that urban infrastructure around water supply and use is playing a large role in the risk of Ae. In contrast, the factors that influence choice of needle gauge, needle length, syringe barrel capacity, and syringe design (i.e., permanently attached needle or detachable needles) tend to be interrelated and more variable. the host The process of spread of infection occurs via complex and complicated conditions that are influenced by natural, social and economic factors. Given the nature of its transmission, several factors affect the spread of malaria. Conceptualization, Today, plague still causes sporadic cases every year and even some outbreaks. Questions that had the same response for nearly every observation were also excluded because they offer little ability to differentiate between houses with and without Ae. Mosquito collections were conducted during the daytime. Koester S, Booth RE, Zhang Y: The prevalence of additional injection-related HIV risk behaviors among injection drug users. According to the participants in these focus groups, almost no PWID in Tajikistan use 1-ml or 10-ml syringes. environmental factors influence and the communicable disease initiated by Vector-borne infections . Many PWID reported preferring syringes with detachable needles over syringes with permanently attached needles. The factors that influence the development, survival, distribution, or migratory behavior of the free-living larvae seen on pasture are primarily weather related. aegypti when households had interruptions in piped water service. Social research methods : qualitative and quantitative approaches. Bailey SL, Ouellet LJ, Mackesy-Amiti ME, Golub ET, Hagan H, Hudson SM, Latka MH, Gao W, Garfein RS: Perceived risk, peer influences, and injection partner type predict receptive syringe sharing among young adult injection drug users in five U.S. cities. All transcripts were translated into English to permit review and discussion with US collaborators. Also, when PWID are preparing drug solutions for more than one person, they may use 5-ml syringes. Participants in Kulob reported that some PWID add diphenhydramine to heroin after they purchase it to potentiate the effects of the heroin when there is a shortage. Resources, Dr Florence Fouque, researcher at the World Health Organization, is passionate about understanding the effects of climate and environmental factors including climate change on the transmission of vector-borne diseases. As pointed out in the figure, whether these relationships result in an increase or decrease in disease burden is not known. This mosquito prefers to bite humans and lay its eggs in artificial containers such as water tanks and planters. The authors would like to thank local partners in Tajikistan, NGO Jovidon, NGO Volunteer and NGO Apeyron, for their help and support in organizing focus groups and conducting research in Kulob and Khorog cities. Using longer needles to inject in shallow veins raises the risk of going all the way through the vein and into tissue beneath the vein. Article Ishak N, Bakar A. Qualitative data management and analysis using NVivo: an approach used to examine leadership qualities among student leaders. Well, they are blunt, expired. Huaquillas is a coastal city located in southern Ecuadors El Oro province, with a population of 48,285 (Fig 1) [29]. In instances where PWID inject together, they inject in different veins/injection sites, but if only one of them has needles and syringes, the other may be forced to use a needle and syringe combination other than he or she prefers. aegypti presence or dengue fever risk has been documented previously in Ecuador, in the coastal city of Machala [38,80]. | Flickr/NIAID-RML. Local studies are especially needed to guide policy and inform interventions. Data are thus available from the Ethics Committee of the SUNY Upstate Medical University for researchers who meet the criteria for access to confidential data. These insights can lead to a better understanding of how this vector-borne disease system functions and where potential levers of control might be found. These developments will further increase the importance of research at multiple scales to guide management and policy. This volume, produced by a multidisciplinary panel, considers such possible explanations for racial and ethnic health differentials within an integrated framework. These needles are also preferred by those who want to avoid visible needle puncture marks on their skin, which may reveal that they inject drugs. PubMed The table below shows the ten most common risk factors that caused a large portion of total global deaths in 2004 according to the World Health Organisation (WHO). Drug Alcohol Depend. Findings from this project suggest that these will not be acceptable to PWID who need larger syringes and longer and thicker needles that are detachable. aegypti must live long enough to feed and become infectious, and the authors suggested that the higher population turnover in the steppe may contribute to the surprising lack of dengue establishment. These works hi-ghlight the importance of understanding the gene content and gene copy number in disease suscepti - bility and/or resistance. aegypti, as underscored by endemic transmission of DENV, which has led to major outbreaks of dengue fever in recent years [22]. In particular, a needle from the insulin-type syringe (also called a capillary needle) is very popular for injecting into thin veins (referred to as capillaries by some of the participants). Interrupted water supply was the only statistically significant risk factor identified in this study, where having an unreliable water supply in the household was associated with increased risk of mosquito presence. Uncertainties remain with respect to the relative importance of these factors and the . The resulting workshop summary, Microbial Evolution and Co-Adaptation, demonstrates the extent to which conceptual and technological developments have, within a few short years, advanced our collective understanding of the microbiome, Focus groups were conducted in Russian and Tajik, audio recorded, transcribed, and translated into English. Investigation, In reporting findings from focus groups and qualitative interviews, the inclusion of direct quotes from participants adds richness to the results. The role of environmental factors on . This book helps readers solve real-world problems in global and local health through a multidisciplinary and comprehensive approach. Syringe-mediated drug sharing among injecting drug users: patterns, social context and implications for transmission of bloodborne pathogens. They said khanka is produced by adding acetic anhydride to opium. Social, economic, ecological and anthropogenic factors responsible for disease spread and transmission have been identified, measured and evaluated for three major diseases, plague, leptospirosis and toxoplasmosis. This book deals with infectious diseases -- viral, bacterial, protozoan and helminth -- in terms of the dynamics of their interaction with host populations. aegypti, such as when water for household activities (e.g. If someone has visible veins, he would, of course, use insulinka, it has a small needle. (FGD#8, Khorog), I have these [insulin-type syringes], it has a thin needle, why do you use them, so the vein does not burst, no blood gets deposited there. aegypti presence was significantly correlated with precipitation lagged by 1, 3, and 5 weeks, individually, but when included in a model with temperature, the longer lags were no longer individually significant. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. While precipitation did not differ much between the two sites, the cooler steppe population underwent a period of low humidity, which may impact survival. The focus groups were conducted in the NSP office in each city. Demographic variables and factors describing the physical conditions of households were not found to be significant predictors of female Ae. aegypti presence was less likely in households with septic systems. Yes J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. No one was sure of the chemical composition of this crystal heroin. Most participants reported that they would only buy it if regular heroin was not available. Factors such as the condition of a persons veins are likely to evolve over time. Unlike some other vector-borne diseases, tick-borne disease patterns are generally less influenced by short-term changes in weather (weeks to months) than by longer-term climate change. The AIDS Pandemic explores the ways in which HIV/AIDS has, and continues to transform the wide range of related disciplines it touches. All respondents considered dengue fever to be a severe disease and correctly answered questions about the transmission cycle of the disease, so these variables were not included in this analysis. So, caution should be used in generalizing these findings to PWID in other cities. aegypti well suited to become established in growing urban areas. When injecting into a vein in an arm or hand, it is essential to hold the syringe steady with two fingers and a thumb and operate the plunger with the index finger and the middle finger. Int J Drug Policy. The book begins with a review of zoonotic pandemics of the past: the Black Death or bubonic plague of the Middle Ages, the Spanish Influenza pandemic (derived from avian influenza) of the early 20th century, to the more modern aegypti presence and climate variables (precipitation, mean, maximum, and minimum temperature) lagged from 0 to 6 weeks. Although the vast majority of PWID in Tajikistan appear to be male, in some other countries women make up a substantial proportion of PWID. This association also holds up when low dead space detachable needles are attached to syringe barrels of different capacity. In some instances, this may cause bruising and discomfort, and in other instances, it may lead to abscesses or other soft tissue infections. Integrated vector control requires information collection, assessment, and decision making at local scales. The case for low dead-space syringes in highly affected countries. In contrast, endemic (enphytotic) diseases occur at relatively . Water contamination through poor sanitation methods leads to waterborne transmission of disease. We thank SUNY Upstate Medical University and the Salud Comunitaria field team for supervising and conducting the data collection necessary for this study. The translated files were imported into NVivo 10 for coding and analysis. Investigation, Correspondence to If a detachable needle clogs, it is relatively easy to remove it and replace it with another needle. Factors thought to influence sexual transmission in Africa include (1) sexual promiscuity, with a high prevalence of sexually transmitted disease (STD); (2) sexual practices that have been associated with a high degree of transmission of HIV (homosexuality and anal intercourse); and (3) cultural practices that are possibly connected with . A beta regression of the proportion of households with female Ae.
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